Golden+Age+and+Fall

Climate and Geographic Factors · Around the coast and the western mountains, they have a Mediterranean climate · Mediterranean climate has a long dry season from May to October · Around the far northwest, some light summer rains occur · The summers are hot around the coast, the daily maximum temperatures are usually +20 degrees Celsius+ (low to mid 80s Fahrenheit) · The mild winters are usually around the low +10s degrees Celsius · Only above 5000 feet (1500m) the mountains are the summers breezy · Around the inlands, the winters are colder and the summers are hotter · Temperatures in Damascus and Aleppo average in the mid +30s degrees Celsius (90s Fahrenheit) in the summer · Damascus and Aleppo in the winter, it averages around +1 to +4 degrees Celsius (mid 30s to low 40s Fahrenheit) · At Tamdur and Dayr al-Zaur, the temperatures averages at upper +30s to low +40s degrees Celsius around the summer (90s to low 100s Fahrenheit) · Extreme temperatures at Tamdur and Dayr al-Zaur ranges to mid to upper +40s degrees Celsius (in the 110s Fahrenheit) · Snow may occur in winter away from the coast and frosts everywhere is common · The coast and the western mountains receive 760 to 1000mm of precipitation annually · Annual precipitation decreases eastward · Mount Al-Duruz receives more than 200mm of precipitation · Al-Hamad (desert area) receives less than 130mm of precipitation <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Precipitation varies from year to year, especially in the spring and autumn months <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Yew, lime and fir trees grow on the mountain slopes <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Date palm are found in the Euphrates valley <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In both coastal and inland regions, plants such as grains, fruits and others are around <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Lemons and oranges trees grow along the coast <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Garigue (Mediterranean scrub) covers many mountain slopes <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Forests makes up only a very small total area of the country and are usually found in the mountains especially in the Al-Ansariyyah mountains <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Many mammals, birds, harmful insects and even domesticated animals live around the mountains <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Reptiles are common in the deserts []
 * 1. Climate and Geographic Factors ||
 * 2. Events and Leaders ||
 * 3. Socio-Political Structure ||
 * 4. Agriculture and the Economy ||
 * 5. Art, Literature and Music ||
 * 6. Idustrial and Artistic Technology ||
 * 7. Essay ||
 * 8. Bibliography ||

Events and Leaders <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Muhammad was born in Makkah (Mecca), Arabian peninsula (Saudi Arabia) 570 CE <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">·  In 611 CE, Muhammad was in a cave of Hira for meditation and reflection, it was then he became a Messenger of God when he heard a voice <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Muhammad fell ill and died in 632 CE <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">·  After Muhammad’s death, his father-in-law, Abu-Bakr succeeded him under the title of “Caliph”, he moved Muhammad’s followers (Arabian & Muslim) northward and they defeated the Byzantine and Persian forces <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Abu-Bakr died two years later after that and Umar succeeded him as the second Caliph <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In 633, the Muslims had conquered Syria <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Umar reigned as Caliph 634-644 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In 637, the Arabs occupied the Persian capital of Ctesiphon <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In 638, the Muslims had entered Palestine <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In 639, the Muslims had conquered Egypt and Persia <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Islam faith had spread into Egypt in 641 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Umar died in 644, and was succeeded by Uthman as the third Caliph <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In 644, Uthman had launched invasions into North Africa <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In 651, the whole Persian realm was ruled by Islam and the faith continued its expansion to the west <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Islam spread throughout North Africa in 654 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In 656, Uthman was murdered (Uthman’s murder had lead to the first civil war in Islam) <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Muhammad’s son-in-law Ali succeeded him as the fourth Caliph <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Uthman’s followers had murdered Ali in 661 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Ali’s followers had formed a religious party called Shi’a to insist only his descendants to assume the title as Caliph <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In 661, Mu’awiya, founder of the Umayyad dynasty became the first Umayyad Caliph and moved the capital from Mecca to Damascus <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Mu’awiya ruled until 661-680 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In 662, Egypt fell to the Umayyads until 868 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· The Muslims conquest had managed to reach Morocco in North Africa in 669, and ruled until 800 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">·  In 680, troops from Yazid had murdered Husayn who was the legitimate successor as Caliph <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· The Arabs oppose the Umayyad leadership had caused Yazid to attack Mecca and Medina in 680-683 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· After Yazid died, a second civil war happened <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Mu’awiya II ruled for about 683-684 after Yazid <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Marwan ruled for about 684-685 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Abd al-Malik ruled until 685-705 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Shi’a staged a revolt in Karbala in 685-687 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In 696, Arabic became the official language of Islam <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· In 704, al-Walid had gathered all the nobles together of Armenia at St. Gregory Church to crucify and burned them to death and the women and children were sold into slavery <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· al-Walid ruled as Caliph until 705-715 and the Great Mosque was built in Damascus <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· in 709, the Muslim conquest of Spain began <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· in 710, about 7000 muslims invaded Gibraltar and almost the entire Iberian peninsula came under the Islamic control by 718 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· in 711, the Islamic faith had further spread into Egypt, Spain, North Africa, Persia and most of the old Roman world had came under their rule <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Muslims began their conquest to Sindh, Afganistan in 711 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Sulayman ruled for about 715-717 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· The Umayyads attempted to seize control of the Byzantine capital and failed which resulted in weakening the Umayyad government in 717 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz ruled until 717-720 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Yazid II ruled until 720-724 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Hisham ruled for about 724-743 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Muslims occupied Nimes, France in 725 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">·  Islamic expansion stopped in France at the Battle of Poitiers but it continued into parts of Asia and Africa in 732 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· al-Walid II ruled for about 743-744 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· both Yazid III and Ibrahim ruled around 744 <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Marwan II ruled until the Abbasids overthrowned them and even killed the Umayyad family except for Abd al-Rahman who fled to Spain and became an independent Caliph of Spain <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Marwan ruled until 744-750 and was defeated at the Battle of Zab <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· The Abbasids ruled for about 750-1258 [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] Muhammad for Beginners by: Ziauddin Sardar and Zafar Abbas Malik Phaidon: Islamic Arts by: Jonathan Bloom and Sheila Blair Islamic Art and Culture: A Visual History by: Nasser D. Khalilli Socio-Political Structure <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· The Umayyads ruled by central government <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Majority of the population were Arabs <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Umar (717-720) had favoured the Christians and their officials at court <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· There were social gaps between the non-Arabs (Islam) and Arabs<span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  There were social gaps between the non-Arabs (Islam) and Arabs <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Muslims believe in God <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The word Islam means "the total surrender of one self to God" <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Say prayers before eating and only using the right hand <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Circumcision of male babies <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Always say funeral prayers to the dead <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Prohibited food includes pork, blood and alcohol [] [] Agriculture and the Economy <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Sugar beet and cottons are the most largest and reliable export crops <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· When it comes to making money, selling vegetables and animals is one of the most reliable job <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Umayyads did a lot of trade with Africa for sorghum <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">They also trade with China for citris fruits <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">They get mangos, rice, cotton and sugar cane imports from India <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Sugar production was huge and was distributed widely throughout the Islamic Empire <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Early forms of proto-capitalism and free markets were present <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Early market economy and merchant capitalism were developed between the 8th-12th centuries [] []

Art, Literature and Music <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· Art and literature was much critically important in this period <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;"> · Art and literature expresses their traditions <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;"> · Bronze designed art was popular <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;"> · Architecture was important, often for religious reasons <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-list: Ignore; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;"> · Several poems were written and the subject of love was popular <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Illuminated mauscripts and woodwork flourished  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"> A famous example of Arabic and Persian poetry on love is Layla and Majnun dated back to the 7th century  <span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Calibri', 'sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> [] []

click to see: http://mattintegratedproject09.wikispaces.com/Industrial+and+Artistic+Technology

**//__ Essay  __//** The Umayyad had ruled for about eighty-nine years (661-750) until the whole family was massacred by the Abbasids and they ruled for about five hundred and eight years (750-1258). The sole survivor of the Umayyad, Abd al-Rahman I had fled to Spain to start his own dynasty. The last Umayyad Caliph, Marwan II was slain in the battle of Zab (750). What lead to the fall of the Umayyad dynasty was that they attempted to seize control of the Byzantine capital and failed which resulted in weakening their government. Many Caliphs have ruled for a short time during the Umayyad dynasty which reduced the expansion of the Islamic faith. However, we can learn from a few Caliphs that have made amazing efforts to expand the faith in a dangerous and short period of time. In the year 750, the army of Marwan II faced the combined forces of Persians, Shi’ite Arabs and the Abbasids at the Zab. His army was filled with veterans. The Abbasids were victorious due to the damaged morale of the Umayyads. During the battle, the Abbasids formed a spear wall. However, the Umayyad cavalry believed with their experience can break the spear wall by charging. Unfortunately, most of them were slaughtered and many soldiers retreated. Also, Marwan II has fled the battle and was pursued by the Abbasids until he was killed at a short battle a few months later at a small Egyptian town, Busir. We can learn from a few Caliphs that have made amazing efforts to expand the faith in a dangerous and short period of time. ( [] ) The siege of Constantinople was a combined land and sea battle. The Arab ground forces, lead by Maslama ibn Abdal Malik was defeated by the Constantinople’s walls and Bulgarian attacks. Their numbers were getting small due to diseases, starvation and hardship of the winter temperatures. In this battle, the Byzantine had effectively aided the Bulgarian soldiers with their navy tactics including the “Greek fire”. Caliph Sulayman had perished in the battle while fighting around the Byzantine border. Many Arabs died due to lack of reinforcements. We can learn from a few Caliphs that have made amazing efforts to expand the faith in a dangerous and short period of time. ( [] ) ) Finally, many Caliphs have ruled for a short time which reduced the expansion of the Islamic faith. Caliphs like Mu’awiya II, Marwan and al-Walid II have ruled for about a year. Sadly, both Mu’awiya II and Marwan died of natural causes. Marwan did help to settle the Umayyad civil war and recaptured Egypt and Syria from Abdullah but was unable to completely defeat him. The Caliph al-Walid, not many people liked him for his personality. A group of people were plotting for his assassination. He was killed while fighting Sulayman around Damascus. We can learn from a few Caliphs that have made amazing efforts to expand the faith in a dangerous and short period of time. ( [], [] , [] ) Due to these unfortunate events, the Umayyad Caliphs have managed to make a good expansion of their Islamic faith. Mu’awiya, founder of the Umayyad dynasty has ruled for about nineteen years (661-680). He was a Caliph that has the longest reign and had influenced his people greatly due to his ideas. Every beginning has to meet its ends. There are always lessons to be learned from history from its achievements, failure and most importantly, effort. The Caliphs have worked hard to decide what was good for their people and the hardest thing to do was to be in that position. [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [|[[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynastyMuhammad|http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynasty]]] Muhammad for Beginners by: Ziauddin Sardar and Zafar Abbas Malik Phaidon: Islamic Arts by: Jonathan Bloom and Sheila Blair Islamic Art and Culture: A Visual History by: Nasser D. Khalilli

__ Bibliography __ [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] Muhammad for Beginners by: Ziauddin Sardar and Zafar Abbas Malik Islamic Art and Culture: A Visual History by: Nasser D. Khalili Phaidon: Islamic Arts by: Jonathan Bloom and Sheila Blair [|http://www.google.ca] [|http://media-2.web.britannica.com] [|http://www.islamicity.com] [] [] [] [] [] []